exercise 1.1
Question
Answer
Contents
Introduction
1.- There are 4 known forces in nature
2.- The ultimate explanation how EH works is at atomic level
3.- Optics is very important in EH
4.- There are 2 main types of energy radiation
5.- EH related Units
5.1.- Electromagnetic quantities
5.2.- Radiometric quantities
5.3.- Photometric quantities
6.- EH Spectrum
7.- EH related concepts
8.- Time Line
References
Included support reading (in .zip folder)
Classes of magnetic materials - UoMi.docx
EH Intro - Viky.pdf
Electricity Intro - Viky.pdf
Example circuit X-ray d etector.pdf
Example circuit X-ray generator.pdf
Instrumentation Handbook h1013v2.pdf
List of some EH equations - Viky.pdf
Magnetism Intro - Viky.pdf
Nuclear decays intro.pdf
Ofcom FAT 2017.pdf
Producing wound components - RClarke UoS.mhtml
Radiometry Units Intro - Viky.pdf
Standard Model - sleeves roll-up.pdf
Standard Model Intro - Viky.pdf
US FAT 2016.jpg
X-ray defender.pdf
Introduction
Although when answering exercise 1.1 [POZAR] expects readers to start with the following literature references
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History of Wireless
by T. S. Sarkar, R. J. Mailloux, A. A. Oliner, M. Salazar-Palma, and D. Sengupta
John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, N.J., 2006.
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Historical Perspectives on Microwave Field Theory, by A. A. Oliner
IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. MTT-32, pp. 1022–1045, September 1984.
IEEE special issue
asking ‘who invented the radio’ is quite a wide question.
What is radio referring to anyway?
radio meaning the devices in vehicles or front-ends and head-ends in receivers and transmitters?
Or is the question referring to who invented the 1st tactical radio that really worked reasonably well in tough conditions?
Some readers may argue that radio here refers to electromagnetic waves and it is a phenomenon that hasn’t been invented by any one, since stars produce radiation called light, and it’s been happening for a while.
Actually it’s been much earlier than Mr Marconi patents were filed, that people were using light for communications
The IT crowd may even argue that there should be an inflection point tagged software-radio when answering this question.
Or is radio more concisely referring to radio channels populating the Spectrum, used in Mobile communications wireless system connecting mobile phones and base stations? What about radio-location? And radio-navigation?
Where [POZAR] asks about radio invention any one could have also reasonably understood the harnessing of electromagnetism by humans.
Opening the examples and exercises collection with such a broad question is probably more a trick to motivate readers, than really asking for a radio encyclopaedia to be supplied as the answer of just the very 1st exercise.
Therefore, I have answered this exercise, as a way to build a base, not only of historical perspective, but also regarding Physics units along with related concepts.
Let’s start by grasping the broad picture :
1.- There are 4 known forces of nature
Gravitational, Electromagnetic / Electromagnetism ≡ EH [1], Strong Nuclear, and Weak Nuclear.
So far, about 85% of universe matter is named ‘dark’ because humans don’t have a clue how to detect it yet: It’s supposed to be there by the way distant objects apparently move (at least observed from Earth) but we such matter, if there's actually matter, is not detectable with current instruments and Test & Measurement ≡ T&M techniques
2.- The ultimate explanation how EH works is at atomic level
Niels Bohr’s atom model has evolved onto the Standard Model with 61 particles.
This model now can explain EH (electromagnetism), strong nuclear, and weak nuclear forces. However we still cannot explain the one force that bounds us to planet Earth. We see a lot, but still neither know how the heck we got stuck on this rock nor can harness gravity in same advanced way that diverse modern technologies use EH.
At the end of the XXth century, after the longest undisrupted (by a major conflict) peace period in human history, we just realised we’d better start mass recycling, revert to clean energy sources, and keep oceans reasonably tidy, at least until we figure out how on heaven gravity works.
3.- Optics is part of EH
[POZAR] is limited to non-ionizing RF and microwave frequencies and hardly mentions optical systems and signals.
But when one aims at building a strong base to understand EH, Optical signals and systems are EH.
[RAMO] has chapters devoted to Optical basics, and this is one of the reasons why I include [RAMO] as support literature.
4.- There are 2 main types of energy radiation
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ionizing
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non-ionizing
Quoting directly from [CDC]
.. Ionizing radiation is a form of energy that acts by removing electrons from atoms and molecules of materials that include air, water, and living tissue. Ionizing radiation can travel unseen and pass through these materials ..
Ionizing radiation can be, from [NRC]
1 becquerel = 1 disintegration per second
1 curie = 37 billion disintegrations per second
= number of disintegrations per second in 1 gram of pure radium.
sievert [Sv] or rem : measure of biologic risk by absorbed dose, or equivalent dose (same as dose equivalent).
Disintegrating atoms can emit: beta, alpha, gamma (rays or particles, it's the same), or some combination of all these.
[POZAR] completely ignores ionizing radiation, probably because it would take at least another book just to get acquainted with the basics of producing and detecting the above mentioned high energy particles.
Again from [CDC]
.. non-ionizing .. differs from ionizing .. in the way it acts on materials .. and living tissue.
Unlike x-rays and other forms of ionizing radiation, non-ionizing radiation does not have enough energy to remove electrons from atoms and molecules.
Microwaves may not have enough energy to ‘peal’ electrons off atoms, but when in high enough quantity (Amplitude and time exposure) and on the right frequencies, EH fields still can heat, burn, and break thinks and people pretty badly.
About stable and unstable nuclei [2], and The Instrumentation Handbook [3].
5.- EH related Units
Included in .zip folder for this exercise physics_constants.m containing some of the constants needed to solve [POZAR] examples and exercises with MATLAB.
For RF microwave and Optics, the following are summary tables aim at showing the most important magnitudes and units related to EH:
5.1.- Electromagnetic quantities
5.2.- Radiometric quantities
5.3.- Photometric quantities
Some one has bravely tried to put all EH equations in one website: List of a few EH equations.
Units further reading in [4].
6.- EH Spectrum
Right at the beginning of WWII, the allies sent a ship named Telconia to cut all German undersea communications cables across the Atlantic. This forced the Axis to use wireless spectrum when attempting to communicate across the Atlantic.
I mention this because EH spectrum (or radio spectrum, or wireless spectrum) is in high demand, and heavily regulated at RF and microwave frequencies, examples
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Ofcom Frequency Allocation Table [OC1]
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US simplified frequency allocation chart [NT1]
[POZAR] wireless spectrum introductory tables included in .zip folder answering this question.
and from https://download.e-bookshelf.de/download/0000/6445/89/L-X-0000644589-0007907512.XHTML/index.xhtml
7.- EH related concepts
Planck postulate : E=h*f ; ∆ f[Hz]
Planck constant:
h = 6.62607015×10−34 [J⋅s]
4.135667696×10−15 [sV⋅s]
Reduced or h bar Planck constant
ħ = 1.054571817×10−34 [J⋅s]
6.582119569×10−16 [eV⋅s]
hc = 1.98644586×10−25 [J⋅m]
w of ħc = 3.16152649×10−26 [J⋅m]
0.1973269804 [eV⋅μm]
Kirchhoff spectroscopy laws:
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A solid, liquid, or dense gas excited to emit light will radiate at all wavelengths and thus produce a continuous spectrum.
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A low-density gas excited to emit light will do so at specific wavelengths producing emission spectrum.
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If light composing a continuous spectrum passes through a cool, low-density gas, the result will be an absorption spectrum.
Types of Spectroscopy Polarization Spectroscopy
OTE : Non-reflective = Opaque = black body, and in Thermal Equilibrium with environment.
Thermal equilibrium
Thermodynamics Laws
Planck’s law = Spectral density of OTE
B=2*h*f^3/c * 1/(exp(h*f/(k_b*T))-1)
B : irradiance [W/(m^2*strad*Hz)]
Approximating for low frequencies h*f << k_b*T then
Planck’s -> Rayleigh-Jeans : B ~ 2*f^2*k_b*T/c^2
Approximating for high frequencies, Wien approximation :
Thermal equilibrium energy distributions:
Bose-Einstein
Quantum effects appear when N/V>nq
nq: quantum concentration=inter-particle distance=DeBroglie wavelength
N: amount particles V: volume
<ni>=gi/(exp((eps_i-mu)/(kb*T))-1)
ni=expected amount of particles in energy state i.
gi=energy level i degeneracy level.
Bose-Einstein reduces to Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution for limit high T.
Bose-Einstein reduces to Rayleigh-Jeans law for low energy states.
Fermi-Dirac
Special case of integral with same name.
Distribution of identical electrons (fermions) in same energy state.
<ni>=1/(exp((eps_i-mu)/(kb*T))-1)
Maxwell-Boltzmann
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution
2D example, velocities of particles in pool is only an analogy,
it’s the energy of the particles, not their mechanical movement only, in solids atoms are steady,
all identical hard balls.
Spin = tiny (quantum) magnetic dipole vector. If integer, only short range interaction.
DeBroglie relation: p=ħ*k , k: wave number, p: magnetic (dipole) moment.
Heisenberg simplifies DE by replacing lattice Hamiltonian classic scalar boundary conditions sigmas spins [1/2 -1/2] with Pauli matrices.
Pauli matrices:
sigma_x=[0 1;1 0]
sigma_y=[0 -j;j 0]
sigma_z=[1 0;0 -1]
1D periodic lattice Hamiltonian:
H=J*sum(sigma_i*sigma_i+1,1,N)+h*sum(sigma_i,1,N)
For 3D periodic lattices, XYZ model if J=Jx~=Jy~=Jz. XXZ model if J=Jx=Jy~=Jz
If J>0 ground state always ferromagnetic.
If J<0 YZ always antiferromagnetic.
Ising model:
Simplified version of 1D Heisenberg model: transverse magnetic field X only, and interaction Z only.
g<<1 or g>>1 ground state degeneracy differs, Pauli introduced duality transition matrices: splits sigma into product series of S (scattering) matrices.
sigmaz_i=PI(sigmax_j,sigmax_j+1,1,j==i)
sigmax_i= sigmaz_i*sigmaz_i+1
DMRG: density matrix renormalisation group
Bethe ansatz: method to obtain wave functions of certain many-body models.
ALKT model: Afflek Lieb Kennedy Tasaki. Extension of quantum Heisenberg 1D model.
Previous extension attempt Majumdar-Ghosh chain (model).
Stark effect: E presence causes atom spectral lines linear or quadratic shifting and splitting.
Principle for voltage-sensitive dyes.
Zeeman effect : atom spectral lines splitting caused by H presence. Laser cooling application
Schrot effect aka small shot effect: spontaneous current variations in high-vacuum discharge tubes.
Stefan-Boltzmann law: average compression pressure on OTE submerged in uniform radiation pool Pc=4*sigma/(3*c)*T^4. Sigma = stef-boltz k
σ = 5.670374419...×10−8 W⋅m−2⋅K−4.
cgs units : σ ≈ 5.67037441918442945397×10−5 erg⋅cm−2⋅s−1⋅K−4.
thermochemistry : σ ≈ 11.7×10−8 cal cm−2⋅day−1⋅K−4.
US customary units: σ ≈ 1.714×10−9 BTU⋅hr−1⋅ft−2⋅°R−4.
Gauss’ theorem = Divergence theorem = Ostrograsky’s theorem
Photoelectric effect : the surface of materials may emit electrons when photons shone on. When measuring the energy of electrons emitted out of light (photons) hitting a surface is independent of light intensity hitting surface, but is linear dependent with photons frequency.
A rise on light intensity generates more (photo)electrons with same energy, not same
amount of electrons with more energy.
Signal processing time–frequency analysis
Gabor limit or Heisenberg–Gabor limit. It is possible to achieve higher resolution in both t and f domains but at the cost of interference.
Benedicks's theorem:
a function cannot be both time limited and band limited.
Rewording; a function and its Fourier transform cannot both have bounded domain:
bandlimited versus time limited
Shannon (signal) entropy: Ht over time, Hf over frequency.
s(t) then S(f)=TF(s(t))
if discrete s(n): Ht(s)=sum(s(i)*log10(s(i))
if continuous s(t): Ht(s)=int(s*log10(s*∆)) % ∆ : bin size
Entropic uncertainty = Hirschmann uncertainty
Ht(s) + Hf(S) >= log10(e/2)
Relative entropy = Kullback-Leibler divergence
Div_KL=int(log10(s(t))*p(dt))=int(s(t)*log10(s(t))*m(dt))
Recommended:
8.- Time Line
[POZAR] expects the answer to this exercise to contain: G. Marconi, Hertz, Mahlon Loomis, Oliver Lodge, Nikola Tesla (the company manufacturing iconic electric cars, the XXIst version of Ford, is named after this one). Well, have a look at the following, all somehow related to EH discoveries and invetion of EH devices.
T Young, 1801: double-slit experiment showing light wave interference.
F Arago, 1812: 1st light polarisation filter. Arago spot.
H C Ørsted, 1821: publishes experiment discovering EH force deflecting compass needle away from North by nearby electric current.
M Faraday, 1821: builds single pole (homo-polar) electric motor.
M Faraday, 1831: discovers mutual induction, principle for transformers, displacement current in Maxwell 4th equation, or Maxwell-Faraday equation, that includes rot(E)=-dB/dt
C F Gauss W E Weber, 1833: build 1st (there were previous mirror/LT signalling/acoustic telegraphs) EH telegraph (private) line between Göttingen observatory and physics institute.
C Wheatstone, 1834: with 3 spark gaps, a lot of wiring, and a high revolution mirror, Wheatstone approximates 2 wire electricity propagation velocity with a not bad at all for those times of 288,000mps (exact 299792458m/s=186,000mi/s).
In 1855 Faraday observed a more accurate and slower than air-between-conductors submarine pairs transmission line propagation velocity of 144,000mi/s.
W Cooke C Wheatstone, 1837: 1st electric (wired, private) current pulsed 5 needle telegraph opens business. Needles (bits) combinations pointed at alphabet. 5 wire lines required. Wiring costs brought amount (wires/line) needles down to 1, operators encoding/decoding was cheaper than laying down lines with multiple wires.
Experimental (rail company, private) telegraph line along Euston – Camden Town, 1837.
S Morse, 1838, 1st public demo 1844: develops sounder telegraph, initially intended to print on paper, but operators soon learnt how to skip strip printing by listening Morse code directly and write received characters.
E Becquerel, 1839: spots the photoelectric effect.
Telegraph line along rail owned line Paddington – West Drayton 1839.
A Bain, 1840: files patent for chronoscope. Wheatstone tries to appropriate idea but case settled in Parliament for Bain, £10k and manager job of accurate time broadcasting e that Wheatstone attempted launch., distribute time over wire with 1/7300 second accuracy is established.
Submarine (private) telegraph line Dover – Calais 1845.
G Kirchhoff, 1845: formulates electric circuit laws.
Also later on, solves wave equation with Green’s identities for apertures in opaque screens obtaining Kirchhoff integral theorem, that approximated is Kirchhoff diffraction formula, in turn correcting Huygens diffraction solution.
A Bain, 1846: files patent of telegraph coding/printing automation, actuated by (tx) and printed on (rx) paper strip (no holes).
C Wheatstone A Stroh, 1846: perfect Bain adding perforations, no ink needed, precursor of stock market Ticker Tape used until 1970.
Electric Telegraph company founded 1846: 1st public telegraph company developing a nation wide network, precursor to British Telecom.
1846 – 1855: France replaces Napoleonic optical (semaphore) telegraph tower system with 2 needle telegraph encoding in same way as optical towers telegraph. In 1855 optical towers coding replaced with Morse coding.
G Kirchhoff R Bunsen, 1859: develop the spectroscope.
1861: US East and West coasts connected by telegraph, bringing Pony Express mailing service to end.
J Plüker J W Hittorf, 1869: plug electric currents through vacuum/gas filled tubes.
J C Maxwell, 1873: Publishes EH equations.
W Crookes, 1873: Solar radiation sail gadget. Wind mill inside vacuum sealed bell spins proportional to incident light intensity. It was a by-product of a chemical experiment.
Solar wind proportional to temperature, overcoming gas pressure at high enough T[C]
Si=E x H ; Si incident Poynting vector [W/m^2]
P=Pi+Pr=2*If/c
P[Pa] total mech pressure exerted on sail
Pr, mech pressure by bouncing back wave. If perfect black body then Pr would be null.
If[] spectral irradiance.
W Crookes, 1875: develops Crookes tubes.
E Goldstein, 1876: discovers Cathode rays across vacuum tubes with electric current.
A G Bell, 1876: telephone patent granted.
Bell Telephone Company, 1877: 1st phone company, founded.
National Telephone (Bell Patents) Company, 1881: founded in UK, 1st in Europe, to cover Notts, Yorks, Ulst and parts of Scotland. NTC would become part of United Telephone Company that would supply telephony UK wide.
UK Postmaster General, 1882: starts issuing telephone licences to, some public, some private, businesses as network operators.
J Poynting, 1884: derives S=ExH [W/m^2] power flux .
Em Hm phasors, then cycle averaged Sm=.5*(EmxHm)
AT&T, 1885: initially part of Bell’s as South Western Bell Company, founded.
1886 general regrouping of all UK telegraph companies under General Post Office’s Postal Telegraphs department.
O Heavyside, 1885 – 89: Applies modern vector notation to Maxwell equations.
E Mach L Zendher, 1890: Light interferometer.
L Eötvös, 1885-1909: experiments to conclude inertial and gravitational mass are the same.
T C Onesti, 1886: tube filled with metal filings detects EH. Onesti never left Italy, becoming a mere foot note. Marconi scooped as early as he could and became a patent owner and millionaire. When Marconi decided to go back to Italy the fascist sank him back in misery and oblivion.
H Hertz, 1886: Rundfunk experiments prove EH waves.
Herr Hertz meticulously compiled short range findings, what later on turned out to be the start point for great wireless developments of others.
Hertz could not account for waves bouncing back on walls within his laboratory.
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/252/photoelectric_effect.html
H Hertz, 1887: spots and documents the photoelectric effect.
A Strowger, 1888: develops SXS, patent achieved in 1891 to replace cheating phone exchange employee diverting incoming customer phone calls to her husband running local business against Strowger’s.
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=qmSAfe6U_iU
P Lenard, 1888: Puts window on Crookes tubes. Lenard tubes.
N Tesla, 1888: alternating current, induction motor and related polyphase AC patents.
1st exhibited remotely controlled boat.
E Brandy, 1890: demonstration of coherer detector.
A Schuster, 1890: spectroscopy, electrochemistry, optics, X-radiography developments.
E Mach L Zendher, 1890: Light interferometer.
A Lodge, 1894: coherer detector. 1898 syntonic tuning.
H Lorenz, 1895: derives (correcting J Thompson) F=q(E+v x B)
W Röntgen, 1895: referred to Crookes and Lenard tubes outgoing rays as new ‘X’ radiation, and despite Röntgen didn’t want such name, it stuck.
G Marconi, 1896: 1st demo to UK gov of patent 12039 on wireless communications with enhanced range. Basically sparks attached to a wire antenna, coils, grounded tx and rx.
In 1901, while attempting contact between Cornwall and Clifden stations, signal was picked up at Signal Hill, st John’s, Newfoundland Canada, with kite aerial, f~850kHz (lamda~350m).
UK judge closing Titanic sinking (1912) investigation included quote that all survivors owed their lives to Marconi’s invention, who had been offered free ride on Titanic, but decided to travel on Lusitania a few days earlier.
1896 UK unifies all trunk network under GPO control.
J J Thompson, 1897: measured charge/mass of cathode rays, 1800 lighter than Hydrogen atom mass: electron mass.
M Planck, 1900: EH energy is emitted in quantized amounts.
By Planck’s law: B= 2*h*f^3/c^2*1/(exp(h*f/(kb*T))-1
B spectral irradiance, [W/(m^2*strad*Hz)]
where k B : Boltzmann constant, h : Planck constant, and c : speed of light
A Einstein :
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Theory of Brownian motion
A Sommerfeld :
Sommerfeld expansion
Rayleigh-Sommerfeld scalar diffraction theory
Drude–Sommerfeld model
Fine-structure constant
Orr–Sommerfeld equation
Sommerfeld identity
Sommerfeld–Kossel displacement
Sommerfeld–Runge method
Sommerfeld–Wilson quantization
Sommerfeld–Bohr theory
Sommerfeld's approximation
Sommerfeld number
Sommerfeld–Watson representation
W Pauli : Quantum physics must be limited to observables.
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Pauli paramagnetism
R A Fessenden, 1900: 1st wireless transmission of speech, with AM.
invented the word heterodyne WH Schottky and E Armstrong (later on FM inventor) also filed for AM patents but Fessenden got there 1st.
J S Stone, 1901/2: wireless telegraphy systems patents applied, dispute with Marconi patent 7777.
J A Fleming, 1904: develops 1st thermo-ionic diode, vacuum valve, heated cathode tube.
C Barkla, 1906: correlates different gases to characteristic X-ray scattering spectra.
R A Fessenden, 1906: 1st trans-Atlantic full-duplex wireless telegraph communication.
R Millikan, 1909: oil-drop experiment to measure electron charge.
J S Stone 1912: develops audion, a valve triode based device, that same year re-engineered by AT&T becomes 1st working amplifier for trans-Atlantic wired telephony.
1912 UK local networks unified, absorbed by GPO.
H Moseley, 1913: develops X-ray crystallography on metals and relates frequencies to atomic numbers.
Coolidge, 1913: improves JAFleming 1904 tube allowing continuous X-ray emission.
N Bohr, 1913: introduces 1st model of quantised atom ∆E=h*f
W H Schottky, 1914: point charge potential of point charge in front of metal
V(x)=-q^2/(16*pi*eps*x) , Schottky used E(x) instead.
Schottky-Norheim barrier
Schottky effect: applying field lowers potential barrier enhancing (thermionic dependent) charge emission.
L Lévy, 1917: filed patent for AM super-heterodyne. French and German IPOs gave patent to Lévy but in 1920 US IPO gave AM super-het patent to E Armstrong despite Armstrong having filed 7 months later than Lévy. After court US IPO returned 7/9 AM super-het claims to Lévy, the 2 claims left went to Alexanderson of GE and Kendall of AT&T.
~1920: Kleinschmidt telegraph tx model includes QWERTY keyboard
A Michelson, 1920: Measurement of light velocity.
(OCRömer 1676 JBradley XVIIIth observations, Fizeau-Foucault 1983)
A H Compton, 1923:
X-ray deflected on graphite, through slit, and captured in chamber measuring E.
lambda2-lambda1=h/(me*c)*(1-cos(theta))
phi: scattering angle of deflected incident X-ray photon
cot(phi)=(1+h*f/(me*c^2))*tan(theta/2)
phi: diffracted angle of pushed-out electron
E_photon=h*f % f[Hz]=phau[Hz]
E_electron=me*c^2
m_photon=h*f/c^2
p_photon=h*f/c % photon angular momentum
variant: hit magnetised crystal with X-ray and then reverse M
(sample magnetisation), subtract measurements ~ Magnetic C Profile of Material
Bose-Einstein distribution, 1924:
Lévy, 1924: 1st horizontal dipole antenna.
1925: 1st V antenna, 1st poly-phase antenna, 1st folded dipole antenna.
W Pauli, 1925: introduces exclusion principle. Fermions obey this principle.
E Fermi, 1925: applies Fermi-Dirac statistics to ideal gas, introduces neutrinos and discovers weak interaction. Bombards Th Ur with slow neutrons creating new elements.
Fermi age equation.
Born , 1926: assume every object in universe is a wave. Let be a particle represented by single mode plane wave Psi(x) ≈ exp(j*k0*x) = exp(j*p0/ħ*x).
Born rule: probability density function of this particle is
P(a<x<b)=integral(|Psi|^2,a,b)
E Schrödinger, 1926: publishes his equation and solution for Hydrogen atom.
Solves quantum diatomic oscillator, rigid motor and diatomic molecule problems.
Stark effect analysis agrees with Heissenberg’s.
Switches on Complex treatment of his equation, reducing it to order 1.
W Heisenberg, 1927, E Kennard H Weyl, 1928: uncertainty principle
sigmax*sigmap>= ħ /2= h/(4*pi)
sigmax = particle position
sigmap = particle magnetic moment
uncertainty principle ~= observer effect. Balakrishnan: the uncertainty principle actually states a fundamental property of quantum systems and is not a statement about the observational success of current technology
observer effect: that the faster a macro object moves (small observation dt) then dx is large, and inversely small space variations allow longer observation time dt, and that dx*dt>K, where K has to do with how heavy is the observed object, it’s an old timer macro physics rule of thumb.
Related (read uncertainty principle):
Schrödinger uncertainty equation for single state.
Robertson-Schrödinger equation for multi-state.
Maccone-Pati uncertainty relation
Quantum harmonic oscillators with Gaussian initial condition (in magnetic well)
Coherent states
Particle in box
Heisenberg uncertainty recent top-up: Ozawa inequality
E Kennard, 1927: 1st to prove sigma_x*sigma_p>= ħ/(2*pi)
P Dirac, 1928: anti-matter exists.
Hans Bethe, 1931: uses Bethe ansatz to obtain exact wave (eigen) function solutions to 1D antiferromagnetic Heisenberg model Hamiltonian.
Method extended to: Lieb-Liniger interacting Bose gas, Hubbard model, Kondo model, Anderson impurity model.
J Chadwick, 1932: discovers the neutron.
W Heisenberg, 1932: Nobel for Quantum mechanics foundation that allows discovery allotropic forms of Hydrogen.
1939 JPopitz, E Planck (son), HSchacht, GThomas write to WKeitel warning that the invasion of Poland would trigger chain reaction and massive resources shortages and Germany would lose war.
O Hans F Strassman, 1939: detects Ba(52) after bombarding U(92) with neutrons.
E Fermi, 1942: Chicago Pile-1 operative.
Oak ridge TN W-10 graphite reactor operational, 1943.
operational aka critical; enough fuel to sustain chain reaction.
R Oppenheimer, 1943: pop-out to a nice view ranch, next to his, called Los Alamos. Had to do with an unstable thin man and it was the fat man that had to do all the, literally, hard break-through work. Initial $100k budget turned out a joke when the military kicked in.
Hanford site WA B reactor operational, 1944.
Edward Teller, 1945: uses Fermi method at Los Alamos F site carries out Trinity test to estimate 1st thermo-nuclear bomb yield.
1949 Soviets detonate 1st fission bomb.
E Young, 1961: double-slit experiment applied to the interference of single electrons.
Claus Jönsson (Tübingen), 1961:
1969 GPO becomes The Post Office in charge of telephone network.
S Chu, 1986: cooling and trapping single neutral atoms [.1*nm] 1997 Nobel with Tannoudji and Philips.
A Ashkin, 2018: Nobel for optical tweezers. At quantum scale a laser can be used as tweezer tip, because of radiation pressure. Magnetic ‘bowl’ needed to clamp load.
grab single cells down to single atoms [.1*nm]
This list is not complete. It cannot possibly be. I am going to keep adding points as necessary.
References
[1] EH for ‘electromagnetic’ or ‘electromagnetism’.
[2] stable and unstable nuclei, some links to start with:
https://nds.iaea.org/relnsd/vcharthtml/VChartHTML.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_spectroscopy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha-particle_spectroscopy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_detection
[3] The Instrumentation Handbook
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optoelectric_nuclear_battery
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betavoltaic_device
https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2002/10/tiny-atomic-battery-could-run-decades-unattended
[CDC] Radiation Studies - CDC: Non-Ionizing Radiation
[NRC] Ionizing Radiation NRC.gov
[4] Units further reading, some of it:
Radiometry units : Wikipedia is a wonderful website to start learning about things, but be aware that anyone can edit articles, and it is a site well known to be avoided when including literature references in theses and documents that authors bet their professional necks on.
The Art of Radiometry by JM Palmer, BG Grant, £86.85 from Amazon
Unit Systems in Electromagnetism, UoS
System of Measurement Units, ETHW
The 7 constants that all other units are built upon, NIST
[OC1] United Kingdom Frequency Allocation Table (ofcom.org.uk)
Also included in .zip the following Warm-Up reading :
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Classes of magnetic materials - UoMi.docx
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Diverse commercial and DIY Geiger meters
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EH Intro - Viky.pdf
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Electricity Intro - Viky.pdf
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Example circuit X-ray d etector.pdf
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Example circuit X-ray generator.pdf
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Instrumentation Handbook h1013v2.pdf
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List of some EH equations - Viky.pdf
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Magnetism Intro - Viky.pdf
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Nuclear decays intro.pdf
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Ofcom FAT 2017.pdf
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Producing wound components - RClarke UoS.mhtml
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Radiometry Units Intro - Viky.pdf
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Standard Model - sleeves roll-up.pdf
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Standard Model Intro - Viky.pdf
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US FAT 2016.jpg
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X-ray defender.pdf
